زبان و ادبیات انگلیسی

The earlier seventeenth century, and especially the period of the
English Revolution (1640–60), was a time of intense ferment in all
areas of life — religion, science, politics, domestic relations, culture.
That ferment was reflected in the literature of the era, which also
registered a heightened focus on and analysis of the self and the
personal life. However, little of this seems in evidence in the elaborate
frontispiece to Michael Drayton's long "chorographical" poem on the
landscape, regions, and local history of Great Britain (1612), which
appeared in the first years of the reign of the Stuart king James I
(1603–1625). The frontispiece appears to represent a peaceful,
prosperous, triumphant Britain, with England, Scotland, and Wales
united, patriarchy and monarchy firmly established, and the nation serving as the great theme
for lofty literary celebration. Albion (the Roman name for Britain) is a young and beautiful
virgin wearing as cloak a map featuring rivers, trees, mountains, churches, towns; she carries
a scepter and holds a cornucopia, symbol of plenty. Ships on the horizon signify exploration,
trade, and garnering the riches of the sea. In the four corners stand four conquerors whose
descendants ruled over Britain: the legendary Brutus, Julius Caesar, Hengist the Saxon, and
the Norman William the Conqueror, "whose line yet rules," as Drayton's introductory poem
states.
Yet this frontispiece also registers some of the tensions, conflicts, and redefinitions evident in
the literature of the period and explored more directly in the topics and texts in this portion of
the NTO Web site. It is Albion herself, not King James, who is seated in the center holding
the emblems of sovereignty; her male conquerors stand to the side, and their smaller size and
their number suggest something unstable in monarchy and patriarchy. Albion's robe with its
multiplicity of regional features, as well as the "Poly" of the title, suggests forces pulling
against national unity. Also, Poly-Olbion had no successors: instead of a celebration of the
nation in the vein of Spenser's Faerie Queene or Poly-Olbion itself, the great seventeenthcentury
heroic poem, Paradise Lost, treats the Fall of Man and its tragic consequences, "all
our woe."
The first topic here, "Gender, Family, Household: Seventeenth-Century Norms and
Controversies," provides important religious, legal, and domestic advice texts through which
to explore cultural assumptions about gender roles and the patriarchal family. It also invites
attention to how those assumptions are modified or challenged in the practices of actual
families and households; in tracts on transgressive subjects (cross-dressing, women speaking
in church, divorce); in women's texts asserting women's worth, talents, and rights; and
especially in the upheavals of the English Revolution.
"Paradise Lost in Context," the second topic for this period,
surrounds that radically revisionist epic with texts that invite readers
to examine how it engages with the interpretative traditions
surrounding the Genesis story, how it uses classical myth, how it
challenges orthodox notions of Edenic innocence, and how it is
positioned within but also against the epic tradition from Homer to
Virgil to Du Bartas. The protagonists here are not martial heroes but a domestic couple who
must, both before and after their Fall, deal with questions hotly contested in the seventeenth
century but also perennial: how to build a good marital relationship; how to think about
science, astronomy, and the nature of things; what constitutes tyranny, servitude, and liberty;
what history teaches; how to meet the daily challenges of love, work, education, change,
temptation, and deceptive rhetoric; how to reconcile free will and divine providence; and how
to understand and respond to God's ways.
The third topic, "Civil Wars of Ideas: Seventeenth-Century
Politics, Religion, and Culture," provides an opportunity to
explore, through political and polemical treatises and striking
images, some of the issues and conflicts that led to civil war
and the overthrow of monarchical government (1642–60).
These include royal absolutism vs. parliamentary or popular
sovereignty, monarchy vs. republicanism, Puritanism vs.
Anglicanism, church ritual and ornament vs. iconoclasm,
toleration vs. religious uniformity, and controversies over
court masques and Sunday sports. The climax to all this was the highly dramatic trial and
execution of King Charles I (January 1649), a cataclysmic event that sent shock waves
through courts, hierarchical institutions, and traditionalists everywhere; this event is
presented here through contemporary accounts and graphic images

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